Day: December 6, 2020

At the end of The Pagoda, Miss Sylvie is beginning to fade away both mentally and physically, and no doctor can figure out what’s ailing her. Lowe decides to send a letter to Miss Sylvie’s son from her previous marriage, hoping that rekindling that relationship will bring some life back. But Lowe didn’t know how stiff the relationship between the two were. When he arrived, Miss Sylvie’s son, LeRoy, was served curried mutton and rice. I wanted to talk about mutton for this weekly post.
Mutton comes from the Latin word multo, which meant a male sheep. This confused me at first, because I thought lamb was sheep meat. As it turns out, both lamb and mutton refer to meat from a sheep. The difference is if the sheep was older than a year old, the meat is referred to as mutton. If the sheep was younger, then it’s lamb. Which then lead me to another question; why do we eat lamb more than mutton in the United States?
For starters, mutton costs more, both in terms of price and time. You have to take care of the sheep for a longer time to get mutton, and once you get that meat, you have to cook it for a longer time so the meat isn’t tough. In addition, during WWII American soldiers were given canned Australian mutton. By the time they got home, they were sick of the food, and some even went so far as to ban mutton in their homes! But most notably, mutton is not as popular in the U.S. due to a series of fights known as the Sheep and Cattle Wars. In the late 1800s, sheep herders were mostly Native American, while cattle herders were those supported by the national government. There was competition over getting land for these animals to graze, and in these conflicts, many of the sheep herders and the sheep were killed. When I started researching mutton, I had no idea I would come across another instance of injustice against Native Americans not taught in school.

The Pagoda pgs. 203-206
https://www.thespruceeats.com/the-difference-between-lamb-and-mutton-2356034
https://www.bonappetit.com/test-kitchen/ingredients/article/the-history-of-lamb-and-mutton-inspired-by-the-campaign-for-wool
https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2019/11/26/781652195/after-wwii-mutton-fell-out-of-favor-in-the-u-s-can-it-make-a-comeback

“… the smell of blood on the men who were arsonists, the smell of wood smoke, Limocal, the smell of bay rum and sulfur and tobacco and pea soup, the smell of cod and corned beef, of red herring” (Powell, 134).

Red peas soup is a popular Jamaican dish consisting of red beans, beef, potatoes, yams, and peppers. Red kidney beans originally come from Peru and have been eaten for thousands of years. They were brought back to Europe by colonizers and conquistadors, where the beans were in turn sent to Africa and Asia via trade and migration. Red beans have since become a staple of dishes in many global cuisines, from red bean buns in China to jambalaya in Louisiana, especially because they are inexpensive and are good nutritional sources. Red beans became especially popular in Central America, where they were introduced by traders. Jamaican red peas soup was soon created, the dish easily made in one pot and with relatively cheap ingredients. It can be eaten alongside dumplings, pig tail, and other small accompanying dishes. It is such an important part of Jamaican cuisine that many immigrants continue to eat it as they leave their homeland, as written in the paper by Oladele, et al which describes that Jamaicans now living in Florida continue to eat red peas soup as a large part of their diet.

Works Cited

“Red Kidney Beans.” https://www.vahrehvah.com/indianfood/red-kidney-beans-rajma

Oladele, C.R., et al. “Food and Nutrient Intakes of Jamaican Immigrants in Florida.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 27 June, 2018, https://rdcu.be/cbMHm

On Lowe’s journey to his daughter’s home shortly after his visit to Kywing, he begins to reminisce about Joyce, a woman with whom he had been close when his shop was still open. It becomes clear through the details of his memories that Joyce gradually became attracted to him the more time they spent together. Her actions indicate obvious signs of flirtation, especially as her dress became more revealing and “her dishes became more exotic” (59), among them “croquettes made with codfish and bechamel, which she told him was Spanish” (59).

The croquette, known as the croqueta in Spanish, is a small cylindrical hash often filled with various ingredients that is deep-fried in oil. Like many foods and dishes, it is by no means unique to any singular country, and different regions often have different variants of the croquette. In the Netherlands, the kroket is typically filled with meat ragout and covered with breadcrumbs. In Spain, the croqueta is traditionally made with a bechamel (flour-based) binder and filled with ham, chicken, or salted cod, which is the variant that Joyce introduces to Lowe. However, most sources point the croquette’s origins to France, although the exact inventor is disputed. Some sources claim that it was French chef Antonin Careme who first served the dish at a banquet in 1817, while others suggest it was Monsieur Escoffier, the “founder” of classical French cuisine, who first wrote down the recipe in 1898. Still other sources indicate that the first instance of a croquette in a French written recipe dates back to 1691 from the chef of King Louis XIV. The word croquette comes from the French word croquer, which means “to crunch.”

Regardless of its exact origins, it appears that the croquette in its many forms became a popular method to recycle meat from the previous day’s stew during times of scarcity in the 19th century. It is interesting how the croquette, like numerous other dishes, is treated as a delicacy in some contexts despite having a history as a food consumed during scarcity. This speaks to the many forms and perceptions of food depending on the time and area. Is it too much to say that like the croquette, Lowe also has many identities within himself that potentially change his standing among others depending on the identity that is perceived?

Works Cited

Engelbrecht, Karin. “What Is a Kroket (Or Croquette)?” The Spruce Eats, 20 Mar 2019, https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-is-a-kroket-1128762

Del Toro, Natasha. “Miami loves a good croqueta, here’s a history of the tasty treat.” The New Topic, 31 May 2019, https://thenewtropic.com/miami-croqueta-history/

Powell, Patricia. The Pagoda, Harcourt, 1998.

“The Short History of Croquettes.” El Principal del Eixample, https://elprincipaleixample.com/en/blog-en/the-short-history-of-croquettes/

Voorn, Alex. “Brief History of Croquettes.” Voorn Croquettes, 14 Apr. 2014, https://voorncroquettes.com/brief-history-of-croquettes/

At one point in his journey to reunite with his daughter, Lowe stops in a shop run by an older Chinese man to have a meal. From the moment he steps into the establishment, Lowe feels out of place, noticing how the others there turn to stare at him. Since the narrator does not supply much information about the makeup of the shop’s clientele, it’s difficult to pinpoint a reason for their surprise at his entrance — Lowe himself imagines it to be due to his strange appearance and an air that marks him as an outsider here. Despite this awkward welcome, however, Lowe is drawn to the shop’s proprietor, at one point even acknowledging internally that the man reminds him of his own father and longing to find “community and love” in this establishment. But when Lowe goes to order his food in mixed English and the Hakka he still retains, he finds that the shopkeeper rebuffs him, looking away in silence until Lowe repeats his order without the Hakka: “Lowe ordered again in English, his voice suddenly gone to rot, the muscles in his cheeks shuddering. This time the man brought a fat green and orange Scotch Bonnet pepper and a chipped enamel plate still dripping with water” (Powell 56). Although the shopkeeper attempts after serving the meal to engage Lowe in conversation, Lowe’s desire for company has soured by now, and he reverts instead to ruminating over memories of the customers at his own lost shop. 

Given the way that Lowe orders his meal, it seems a given that the pepper is a common component of the cuisine in this region of Jamaica, and Powell’s description of the Scotch Bonnet pepper that is served is vibrant and enticing. The Scotch Bonnet is a cousin of the habanero, and is in fact one of the hottest and most popular types of pepper used in Caribbean cuisine. For the most part, they’re cultivated in Jamaica and they figure prominently into many Jamaican and greater Caribbean dishes and sauces, forming the basis for pepper sauce, a widely used condiment in Caribbean cuisine. In appearance they are usually small and red, orange, or green, getting their name from the rather squashed shape that looks like a tam o’shanter or a Scottish-style bonnet. In the Caribbean, they may also be referred to as “Jamaican hots” or “Bahama mamas,” amongst other common names. The taste of the pepper naturally differs based on the conditions of its cultivation, but generally, Scotch Bonnets have a rather fruit-like flavor working in tandem with the spice of its seeds, and they are often used whole or diced in Caribbean cooking. 

While it’s known that Scotch Bonnets are important to Jamaican cuisine, the history of how the pepper came to be cultivated in greater numbers may be less known. According to Bill Esparza, the first Scotch Bonnets existed in the western Amazon basin, part of what is Brazil today, and they were eventually brought to Jamaica, or Xamayca, by the Taino, an Arawak people who made up great numbers of the population in the Caribbean region at the time of the first European colonists’ arrival in the late 15th century. They cultivated a variety of crops that are important to Jamaica today, including the Scotch Bonnet pepper. Led by Christopher Columbus, these invading colonists exploited the Taino’s resources and, when they resisted, carried out a horrific sustained genocide of the indigenous population. While much of the Taino people were systematically wiped out during this period, their traditions survive still in Jamaica today. 

 

Works Cited

Esparza, Bill. “The Scotch Bonnet’s Journey from the Orinoco River Valley to the Jerk Pit.” Explore Parts Unknown, Explore Parts Unknown, 6 July 2018, explorepartsunknown.com/jamaica/the-scotch-bonnets-journey-from-the-orinoco-river-valley-to-the-jerk-pit/.

Nelson, Cynthia. “Scotch Bonnet Peppers Are the Pepper of Choice in the Caribbean.” The Spruce Eats, www.thespruceeats.com/scotch-bonnet-chili-2137836.

Powell, Patricia. The Pagoda: A Novel. New York: Knopf, 1998. Print.

Weaver, William Woys. “Orange ‘Scotch Bonnet’ Peppers and the Haiti Connection.” Mother Earth Gardener, www.motherearthgardener.com/plant-profiles/veggie/orange-scotch-bonnet-peppers-haiti-zmaz15wzsbak.

“He allowed Omar, who wore a blade of grass between his teeth, to lead him through the fields full of tall grass with fluffy heads, past the plantations of sugarcane, the neat rows of orange and lime and banana trees, through the dense yellow and green fields of corn, through hills of potato slips and of St. Vincent and Negro and Afu yams, through the creak and groan of bamboo trees swaying and rubbing. Temporarily his troubles dimmed in his mind” (Powell 119).

In Chapter 5 of The Pagoda, Mr. Lowe feels at ease and appears to forget about his worries when he explores Miss Sylvie’s land with Omar. Powell provides descriptive details about the types of plants and animals that inhabit the land. In this passage specifically, I wanted to delve into the history of limes.

There are two main types of limes: the Persian Lime and the Key Lime. The Key Lime, otherwise known as the Mexican Lime, originates from Malaysia. Upon analyzing the genetics of this citrus fruit, it was discovered that it’s a “tri-hybrid intergeneric cross” between the citron, pummelo, and a type of microcitrus (Crane). In terms of its physical appearance, this type of lime is relatively small, a green-yellow color, and circular in shape. It was introduced to the Mediterranean region during the Crusades, and by the mid-1200s, limes were grown in Italy and France. Afterward, Christopher Columbus transported the key lime to the West Indies during “his second voyage” (“Key Limes”). Now, Key Limes are predominantly grown in the U.S., Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, and Haiti. In contrast, the Persian Lime has a thicker rind, no seeds, and is larger in size. Also called the Tahiti Lime, this type of lime is a hybrid between the Key Lime and the citron, which is a larger version of a normal lemon. Its exact origins are unknown, but it is believed that it was developed in the 20^th century (“Key Lime Pie”). Moreover, the Persian lime tree is mainly cultivated in Mexico, Cuba, and other subtropical countries.

Sources:

Crane, Jonathan H. “Key Lime Growing in the Florida Home Landscape.” EDIS New Publications RSS, Horticultural Sciences, 7 Jan. 2020, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ch092.

Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. “What Are Persian (Tahiti) Limes?” The Spruce Eats, www.thespruceeats.com/what-are-persian-limes-1807861.

Grant, Amy. “Persian Lime Care – How To Grow A Tahiti Persian Lime Tree.” Gardening, www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/fruits/lime/persian-lime-tree-care.htm.

“Key Lime Pie.” Sailor Girl, www.sailorgirl.com/adventures/key-lime-pie/.

USDA. “Lime.” dpi.wi.gov/sites/default/files/imce/school-nutrition/pdf/fact-sheet-lime.pdf.

In the Pagoda, Mr. Lowe comes to see Joyce after a revelation of secrets from Miss Sylvie. He shows up emotional, afraid, and hurt late at night, and she “covered his shoulders with a shawl to beat back chills and gave him a warm toddy to drink” (149). I can only take “warm toddy” to mean “hot toddy” – there is no other drink by that name. I take “warm” as an extra description, giving us details of how the drink actually was – perhaps not as hot as it ideally might be. A hot toddy is hot water, sugar, spices (usually nutmeg, cinnamon, and ginger), and an alcohol, usually whiskey or rum. The “toddy” in hot toddy comes from the Hindi word “taddy,” or “tārī,” which means drink made from fermented pine sap. The British recorded this drink in the 18^th century during the colonization of India and it became incredibly popular in the damp UK. Some people claim that the hot toddy actually comes from Robert Bentley Todd, an Irish doctor that prescribed a hot drink of brandy, sugar water, and cinnamon to his patients. It’s probably true that he did prescribe the Hot Toddy, likely after hearing news about it from India. The drink became popular in America during its colonization, often being made with Caribbean rum. The hot toddy is versatile and adaptable to what you have on hand. Its clear why hot toddies might have been popular in Jamaica – the ingredients of rum and sugar were readily available. This drink was very appropriate for the situation in the book. After all, what’s more soothing than a hot drink?

Sources:

Edsall, Sam Zachrich. The Hot Toddy Through History. 7 Feb. 2018, www.knowhowstudios.com/2018/01/hot-toddy/.

Hines, Nick. The History of the Hot Toddy. 12 Jan. 2017, vinepair.com/articles/history-of-hot-toddy/.

In Chapter 3 of the Pagoda, Mr. Lowe is speaking to his friend, Kywing. Kywing suggests opening another shop, while Mr. Lowe is thinking about how important the shops are to the Chinese men who come to work in Jamaica. “They slept there underneath the counters on top of long grain rice and unbleached-flour bags” (Powell 39).

Rice is a staple dish amongst all cultures across the globe. Archaeologists have much trouble trying to determine where the grain comes from, but the first recorded mentions of it come from 2800 BC China. Emperor Shen Nung held many rice ceremonies after recognizing the importance of the plant to his people. Today, rice is celebrated during New Year events. It is also unclear how rice was introduced to America and Europe, but it is likely from soldiers, merchants, or pilgrims. In certain cultures, rice is associated with prosperity.

The use of rice in this scene is symbolic of how Chinese merchants came to Jamaica seeking success and wealth that could be sent to their families back home. By sleeping on top of these bags of rice, It represents the amount of effort it took for them to prosper in this new land, while holding onto & being supported by the culture they know.

http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/32/history-of-rice.html

“The pockets of his shirt were always bulging and weighted down with the tiny notes he wrote to himself and the pieces of crackers or bread he intended to eat before he got distracted by customers….” (132).

There is universality in bread despite this wheat based product being associated with European cuisine. Bread is a broad term that describes a carbohydrate that serves (somewhat) as a bland canvas for other additions. When we simplify the base recipe, it consists of some kind of flour and water, the addition of eggs and butter make it richer and can become similar to brioche or challah; yeast creates an entirely new and fluffy texture. Bread dates back to prehistoric times where it was just water and ground up grains that were fried together on heated rocks. Through leavening and refined flour were we able to adapt to the bread we know and love today. Through continual progress were we able to achieve the variety we know and have even been able to stray away from wheat based products with this gluten-free era.

The primary carbohydrate one will associate with Asia (in general terms) is rice. This makes sense, rice is the vehicle that we pair with meals and is the most widely availble starch across the continent. However, the innovation of modern Asian bread has not been lost due its soft and chewy texture that many European breads lack. This texture can be achieved through the Tang zhong method that is traced back to Japan. Water and rice flour are mixed together to form a thick ball of paste that goes into the based dough creating a pillow like texture. This method was not popular until Yvonne Chen wrote a book on it but has become a staple method that many modern day bakers have picked up on.

While the tang zhong has strong association with the Asian bakeries we know and love today, early Chinese bread was mainly steamed to create a blanket term of “mantou”. The act of steaming creates a similar pillowy texture to the tangzhong method and its lack of a hard outer crust is almost like just eating the inside of your bread. In this way, we want to reframe the broader contextual category of “bread” as based off of core ingredients items like cong you bing and you tiao could fit into this category (after consideration many noodles hold those same ingredients and now I am questioning a lot of food facts). The humble piece of bread is far reaching and universal yet its simplistic  nature has undergone changes that we had never previously considered.

 

https://www.history.com/news/a-brief-history-of-bread

https://www.cookipedia.co.uk/recipes_wiki/Tang_zhong#:~:text=Tang%20zhong%20(also%20known%20as,The%2065%C2%B0%20Bread%20Doctor.

https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2015/12/04/food/short-history-real-bread-japan/

An introduction to Chinese bread

“There was that sound again, that whispering wail strung along by the breeze, and what was that smell? Roast yam, smoke, roast corn? Lowe chuckled softly to himself at his neighbors, who could start fire and put on pot to boil at any hour of the day…” (Powell 10)

Amidst a reverie of memories and anxieties, Lowe smells the scent of roasted yams. In the US, yams and sweet potatoes are interchangeable. Yet in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, the two tubers different species altogether (scientifically, they’re from different plant families, too). The most popular yam grown in Jamaica is the yellow yam, introduced to the island through the slave trade from West Africa (Fay & Angela). Yams differ in texture greatly from sweet potatoes, denser and grittier in both skin and flesh. The roasted yam Lowe was smelling was probably cooking over a fire, unpeeled, and tender on the inside. (Sontag).

The commonplace mixup between yams and potatoes has historical roots. Enslaved people longed for the food of their homelands, and sweet potatoes provided a welcome substitute for the yam, which in some West African languages means “to eat.” Yams were and are staples in cuisine across the globe, and their presence in Lowe’s sensory observations references a long entanglement of forced migrations, colonies, and labor.

 

Fay & Angela. “Jamaican Ingredients: Yellow Yams.” Cook like a Jamaican, 15 May 2012. https://cooklikeajamaican.com/amp/ingredient-of-the-week-yellow-yams/

Harris, Jessica B. “You Say Potato, I Say Yam.” The New York Times, 24 November 2009. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/25/opinion/25harris.html

Sontag, Elazar. “Everything You Should Know About Yams.” Serious Eats, 17 October 2019. https://www.seriouseats.com/2019/10/what-are-yams.html