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The spotted salamander is one of the most prominent salamanders found in the woods and forests around Ithaca. A few weeks ago, back when Ithaca briefly decided winter was ending, and it was beginning to feel more like spring, they began their annual migration. I was able to bring a handful of veterinary students with me to witness this event, and many seemed interested in learning more about these little guys and their lifecycle. I hope to address some of the more common questions here.

Spotted what?

The spotted salamander is a small (6 to 9-inch-long) salamander most notable for its blueish-black coloration, with two rows of bright yellow spots running down either side of its back from head to tail. It is commonly found in the Eastern United States and Canada. It belongs to a group of salamanders known as mole salamanders (genus Ambystoma), and, as such, is adapted to living most of its life on land. Its most significant adaptation is the presence of true lungs in the adult animal.

Why are they migrating?

Migration is a normal part of a spotted salamander’s life! Like all amphibians, once they hatch from their eggs, they begin their lives as aquatic and free-swimming larvae. The larvae will grow into juvenile salamanders capable of living on land within 2-4 months of hatching. However, to start out in water, their eggs must be laid in the water; this is where the migration comes in. Adult salamanders will often return to the pond in which they were born to find, and mate with, other salamanders. They will then lay their eggs in large jelly-like clumps that can be found underwater in these ponds. After a couple of months, the eggs will hatch, starting the cycle over again.

How often does this happen?

Photo by Elle Gunzel

Spotted salamanders are triggered by the warming weather and gentle rains that come with the end of winter and beginning of spring. When it is too cold, their metabolism is simply not active enough to allow them to make the trip, and a prolonged journey in dry weather can be damaging to their skin. Additionally, most salamanders breed in vernal ponds, which can dry up later in the season. As the salamander’s future offspring need to be fully developed and able to survive on land by the time the pools dry up, there is significant pressure on these animals to get out and migrate as soon as possible. As a result, you typically will only see one migration a year, consisting of all the salamanders living in a specific area. It is important to note that spotted salamanders will also migrate back from their vernal ponds after breeding, but this event is much less predictable, and much less spectacular, as they will move in several waves.

Where do they live normally?

When not breeding or migrating, spotted salamanders adopt a lifecycle similar to all other mole salamanders. They live in forests, under leaf litter and debris where it remains moist most of the time. They will also inhabit burrows to stay cool and moist. While not big diggers themselves, they will gladly occupy the burrows of other animals, if available. This tends to be not a big problem, as it allows them to hide from most larger predators, and smaller predators will be dissuaded by the toxins found in the salamander’s skin. In the event they do encounter a predator, salamanders have an unprecedented ability to regenerate their body. They have been noted to regrow their tails, limbs, and even parts of their brain, although this can take a massive amount of energy.

How do they survive the winter?

With the onset of winter, spotted salamanders will typically seek out deep burrows, hopefully ones that are under the frost line. When cold weather comes, these animals will enter a state known as brumation. Brumation is similar to hibernation in mammals, such as seen in black bears. However, hibernation is a state caused by prolonged unconsciousness, whereas brumation is a state were prolonged unconsciousness is caused by a lack of metabolism. Bears sleep to hibernate; amphibians are asleep because of brumation. If the weather warms up, as tends to happen periodically, brumating animals will become briefly active, whereas hibernating animals will stay asleep. Additionally, when the seasons change many amphibians have the ability to rapidly mobilize glycogen into glucose, thus raising the amount of glucose present in their blood and tissues. This effectively raises the freezing point of their tissues, similar in effect to putting antifreeze in your car. This also means that, upon defrosting, these animals will rapidly have a source of glucose to keep their cells alive, even if their circulatory system hasn’t fully recovered yet.

How do you know when the migration is occurring?

I got this question a lot. What it breaks down to is knowing the natural biology of the spotted salamander that I have previously discussed. Upon the end of winter, usually in March or April, you need to wait for the right conditions. On particularly rainy days, where the average temperature is at least 45 degrees Fahrenheit, you should have a high suspicion that these animals will be on the move. I simply waited for the right conditions, and went to check the fields on appropriate nights. The migrations start around 8:00 pm, with peak movements occurring between 9-11 pm, although it may continue throughout the night. If you see salamanders as early as 8:00 pm, you can guarantee there will be more on the move shortly.

Do be careful if you go out though. Salamanders and other amphibians have not exactly adapted well to human encroachment of their environment. While this weather means there will be lots of salamanders on the fields, there will also be salamanders, frogs, and toads out enjoying the wonderful weather on the roads. The day after every warm, rainy night, you will invariably find squashed amphibians on roads that are near ponds. If you live near such a pond (the high-pitched chirping of thousands of spring peepers will tell you if you do), please be careful on the roads, and keep a lookout for our tiny “cold-blooded” friends.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR:

Jonah Marion  is a second year Cornell veterinary student with a primary interest in reptile and companion exotic animal medicine.

Mary restraining a golden pheasant during a series of wellness checks and blood draws completed on a variety of exotic chickens and pheasants.

A day in the life of a zoo veterinarian: a fer de lance cardiac consult, thirty outtake exams and blood draws on various breeds of chickens and pheasants, and a recheck on a Pacu fish with abrasions and missing scales. During the summer of 2017, I interned at the Staten Island Zoo: New York’s Biggest Little Zoo. I worked with amazing people and learned many valuable lessons. I medicated snakes via gavage tubes, practiced darting using a target board, and appreciated the vast differences between zoo and companion animal medicine. While many of the same principles are used, the tactics and methods of implementation differ because the animals that we deal with in zoo animal medicine are dangerous, wild, easily stressed, or some combination of the three (usually all three).

This summer, I learned the importance of understanding animal behavior in zoo medicine. Reading behavioral signs to infer how an animal is feeling and predict how it may react is integral to proper animal management, housing, efficient medical treatment, and many other contexts. In a small animal setting, a scared or aggressive dog can inflict a severe bite wound. Irritation and loss of patience in a full-grown male ostrich, on the other hand, can lead to severe injuries such as broken bones, spinal injuries, or even death. We pay attention to these cues and don’t take them lightly, for safety reasons. Additionally, understanding animal behavior allows us to influence that behavior, and train animals to perform certain behaviors on cue. Training can be utilized to facilitate interactions with and evaluate larger and more dangerous animals on a regular basis without anesthetizing them, which is important for wellness checks and physical exams. It also allows the public to interact with animals in a more close-up setting, during education programs with ambassador animals.

Suntanning kangaroo

For zookeepers and the zoo veterinarian, the first step in understanding animal behavior is recognizing a change from what is considered normal in that species. Animals do their best not to appear ill, which makes it difficult to recognize a problem early on. This especially rings true for animals in the wild, since predators target the visibly weak or ill prey for their next meal. But subtle changes in behavior – namely, depression – can be an early indicator that something is wrong and allows for earlier diagnostics and intervention. This summer, an otherwise healthy-looking chuckwalla was not standing at attention with her neck and head extended, as many lizards normally do. Instead, she was sprawled out on her belly. The ability to recognize this behavior as abnormal prompted us to draw a blood sample, and ultimately diagnose and treat anemia.

Alpaca gossip

Understanding animal behavior is also critical in a captive setting to decide which animals are housed together. Animals, just like humans, have complex social interactions and develop social hierarchy systems. New animals must be introduced to a group slowly, to prevent disruptions in social structure which could lead to fights that result in injuries. This summer, two female Kenyan Crested Guineafowl were brought to the Staten Island Zoo for breeding and were to be housed in the same enclosure as the two existing males birds at the zoo. The new members were left in their carriers within the exhibit for a few hours to allow the birds to interact through the bars, before they were given full access to one another. Similarly, after removing a Gambel’s quail from its group for several days for treatment of a leg injury, we separated the large group into two smaller groups. Because the birds were reestablishing their social hierarchy, reintroducing the previously injured bird as part of a group of three reduces the chances that she will be targeted during these fights.

Successfully introducing dangerous animals to one another must be done cautiously, particularly when the animals are endangered. The Staten Island Zoo recently acquired a new female Amur leopard, Liski, as a breeding partner for the resident male, Kolya. The entire introduction process was done slowly and carefully, since the animals can easily harm one another and their caretakers. First, the leopards exchanged enclosures at night, in order to pick up the other’s scent. Then, they were allowed to interact through the fencing. These two steps occurred over the course of several weeks to ensure Liski adjusted well fully introducing the two leopards to one another. Liski and her trainer worked closely multiple times a week, and over time, we learned more about her as an individual animal and better understand her personality.

On the day the two leopards were first introduced, we gathered several keepers, interns, and the vet together, instructing each person to watch the two animals very carefully. The room was full of excitement; every person was on their toes. They were given about 5 minutes to interact that first day before being separated once more. We allowed the leopards to repeat this interaction three times a week, for several weeks – and each time, we increased the length of time that they were allowed together. By the end of the summer, the two leopards were allowed on exhibit together, respecting each other’s space. Each animal even has their own “favorite spot”.

Mary assist feeding a sick baby bat

If understanding behavioral cues is important in our day to day interactions with one another as humans, it is so much more important when interacting with animals, since there is a literal communication barrier. It is even more important when working with non-domestic animals, since they often view humans as a threat to their well-being. The many cases I have seen last summer have illustrated how understanding behavior impacts the success of treatment, while simultaneously keeping animal staff out of harm’s way. I am grateful to have had this experience, not simply because I’ve worked on improving my clinical and handling skills with a large variety of species, but also because I’ve learned more about the subtleties involved in zoo medicine.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mary Nasr is a second year vet student from Staten Island, NY. She received her Bachelor of Science from Rutgers University in 2016, with a major in Animal Science. She is passionate about zoo and wildlife medicine, conservation, and education, and aspires to build a career around zoo/wildlife surgery and anesthesia.

Scarlet Macaw rescued from the wildlife pet trade. They are highly susceptible to deforestation and poaching.

Sharon Matola (on the right) is describing the story of this crocodile whom the Belize Zoo staff and her staff raised from birth. The croc prefers to be held by humans and scratched on the sensitive skin on its forehead.

As you walk through the entrance of the Belize Zoo, you almost bump your head on the massive tapir skeleton hanging from the ceiling. The entrance hallway beyond is lined with photos of Sharon Matola (Belize Zoo founder and director) exploring the zoo with conservation heroes such as Steve Erwin. You just know that you are about to walk into a place that is profound and special. The hallway opens into a stunning rainforest environment where, as your eyes adjust, two large enclosures built into the forest house two stoic King Vultures and two chatty Scarlet Macaws (separated, of course!). The zoo is quite literally built into the rainforest, being a maze of paths that open into beautiful enclosures. When you get lost on the paths, as I often did, you can watch talkative wild red-lored parrots fly overhead, spot agouti and armadillos scampering on the paths,

and observe a wild hybrid freshwater and saltwater crocodile, who happened to make residence in the zoo one day, basking in the sun. It is as if you are within an enclosure, observing the animals of Belize in their natural habitat. All of the animals at the zoo come from  traumatizing backgrounds: victims of the wildlife pet trade, poaching and deforestation. Each one is cherished and cared for by Sharon Matola and the Belize Zoo staff.  These animals, having lived a haunting and traumatic past, now live happily rehabilitated in the zoo, serving as education icons for their wild counterparts. Talk to any Belizian and they have been to the zoo within the last 6 months. This is a place where Belizians can observe and learn about the animals that they have only heard about in stories during their childhood. It is a place where an infamous myth about an animal – such as believing a barn owl to be a bad omen – is replaced with admiration and adoration that comes from observing and learning about these animals. It is a place where Belizians can feel a sense of national pride, being able to watch these unique native species and develop intimate connections to them. One such encounter includes feeding a banana to Belize’s national animal, the tapir, who is typically elusive and concealed in the wild. Plus, The Belize Zoo is the first wheelchair-accessible nature destination in Belize, making it truly reachable to any person.

This winter, 18 Cornell students and clinicians traveled to Belize to continue the amazing partnership with Cornell Vet Med, the Belize Zoo, and support from the John T. and Jane A. Wiederhold Foundation. Cornell now sends a team every six months to provide veterinary care to a diverse array of native Belizian wildlife. Amongst the team this year were Wildlife / Zoo veterinarian and resident Drs. Sara Childs-Sanford and Cindy Hopf with wildlife technician Alice Van DeMark, veterinarian anesthesiologist and resident Drs. Robin Gleed and Katie Zatroch, Dentistry and Oral Surgery veterinarian and resident Drs. Santiago Peralta and Lindsey Schneider accompanied by dental technician Bethany Wright, and two teacher assistants / third year vet students, Zachary Dvornicky-Raymond and myself (William Fugina). Additionally, 8 Cornell veterinary students accompanied the team to assist with procedures and gain an incredible experience.

Here’s vet student’s Mariah Beck (back right), Eric Teplitz (left) and myself ultrasounding the kidneys of a Kinkajou while anesthesia and dentistry residents Drs. Katie Zatroch and Lindsay Schneider are hard at work!

Here are the pharmacy and lab diagnostic counters that we organized to make finding medication and conducting diagnostics more efficient.

Throughout this partnership, the zoo has been adding new equipment and facilities to the clinic, thanks to fundraising and donations from collaborating institutions like Cornell and the BZNC (Belize Zoo Nature Conservancy). This being my second consecutive year at the Belize Zoo, I saw just in a year’s span how much the clinical facility improved. Taking a more administrative role at the zoo this year, I was able to observe the ebb and flow of the new clinic. I felt that the improvements facilitated a strategic and logical flow reminiscent of our animal hospital at Cornell.  Additional to the clinical improvements, there is now an organized diagnostic lab where we made fecal and blood smears, cytology, and organized samples for CBC and chemistry panels. This year, we were able to do thorough diagnostic workups for every animal we worked on. This enabled us to make more directed diagnoses and treatment plans for the animals. Finally, there was now an organized pharmacy with a documented inventory, easily accessible for clinicians or zoo staff to establish and prepare treatment protocols. This also enables the zoo and visiting organizations to coordinate on what medications are in short supply, so that visiting groups can replenish and replace medications and supplies. I discuss the improvements in such detail because of how important I felt it was towards enhancing the student’s experience. Whether you were scrubbing in on a jaguar dental surgery, managing anesthesia of a puma, or running diagnostics on toucan blood, there was a job to be done, even for 18 people.

Here I captured the flawless ebb and flow of
procedures done at the zoo. Dr. Schneider (left) is conducting her dental exam on this jaguar while vet student Eric Teplitz scribes the findings as the dental technician. Vet Students Benjamin Jakobek (Middle), Zack Dvornicky-Raymond (middle right) and William (Perry) Koehler (left) observe and listen to Dr. Cindy Hopf teach while ultrasounding the kidneys.

Drs. Schneider (left) and Peralta (right) diagnose tooth root absorption in this jaguar while William Koehler on the left waits patiently to get his hands in on the action as the dental surgery technician. I am gathering on vitals.

The partnership the Belize Zoo has made with Cornell Vet Med truly facilitates a world-class veterinary opportunity for veterinary students, technicians and clinicians. What excited me most about this opportunity was the collaboration amongst veterinary specialties. With our diverse team consisting of anesthesiologists, wildlife veterinarians and dentists, they provided these unique animals with a thorough and specialized form of veterinary care parallel to that of a referral hospital, except in a zoo setting within a developing country. Additionally, these collaborations facilitated new insights and discoveries in veterinary medicine which may have not occurred if not for this partnership.

Here are the dental radiographs from this
jaguar. The blown-up photo on the right shows two teeth with evidence of tooth root
absorption. Extraction was indicated for any
tooth undergoing this process because it’s a
very painful, unmanageable condition.

For example, Cornell’s dental team was working on one of the zoo’s jaguars. After a thorough dental exam including  radiographs, they diagnosed tooth resorption, a common idiopathic dental pathology in domestic cats. To their knowledge, this was the first documented case in a jaguar. With the pending histopathologic information on the extracted teeth from this case, this could provide vital information to the idiopathic nature of this disease in domestic cats as well as make this a notable disease to keep on the differential list in dental pathology of large felids. As a student, I see the enormous benefit and need for more veterinary specialty collaborations in conservation. In providing experiences like this to students, it enables us to realize that no matter the specialty or type or veterinary medicine you track, you can still take part in wildlife medicine and conservation. Additionally, this experience reflects the benefits of maintaining successful long term international partnerships, where resources, knowledge and stories are shared amongst newfound friends and colleagues over a few Belikans and many laughs.  I look forward to seeing how this partnership transforms in the future, and I am excited to hopefully one day join a future team as a veterinarian. 

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: William Fugina is a third-year veterinary student at Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine.