Characterization of Soil Health in Suffolk County, Long Island

Deborah Aller1Kaitlin Shahinian2Joseph Amsili3, Harold van Es3
1Cornell Cooperative Extension of Suffolk County, 2Suffolk County Soil and Water Conservation District, 3Soil and Crop Sciences Section, Cornell University

Interest in soil health concepts, practices, and testing has grown rapidly across the United States as farmers, researchers, and the general public increasingly recognize the central role of soils in food production, water quality, environmental sustainability, and climate adaptation and mitigation. Further, it is well known that land managers have a tremendous capacity to either degrade or improve the health of the soil through their management decisions.

Acknowledging the importance of healthy soil for the long-term productivity and sustainability of agriculture on Long Island specifically, the CCE Agricultural Stewardship Program partnered with the Suffolk County-Soil and Water Conservation District to offer soil health testing free of charge to all farmers in the County. This program began in spring 2018 and in just three years over 60 farms have participated, and more than 200 soil samples have been collected. In 2020, the New York Soil Health Initiative (https://newyorksoilhealth.org/) published a report (https://newyorksoilhealth.org/soil-health-characterization/) characterizing soil health across New York State (NYS), which quantified the effects of different cropping systems on soil health. We additionally characterized soil health at a smaller regional scale within the state so that farmers can compare their soil health to similar production environments nearby.

We have summarized results from 231 soil samples collected from across Suffolk County that encompass a variety of soil types and cropping systems. The samples were approximately evenly split among sandy loam, loam, and silt loam texture classes. The County has a higher proportion of coarse-textured soils (higher percentage of sand) than much of the rest of the state. These coarser soils are indicated by the Psamment soil suborder (Figure 1). All soil samples were analyzed using the Standard Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (CASH) package at the Cornell Soil Health Laboratory.

map graphic
Figure 1. Map of soil suborders in Suffolk County.

Suffolk County hosts a great diversity of agriculture and remains the top producer of nursery crops, certain vegetable crops (pumpkins and tomatoes), and perennial fruits (grapes and peaches). There are also many small-scale diversified vegetable farms that largely grow fresh market vegetables and several pastured livestock operations. Additionally, the high value of land and the maritime climate creates much different conditions for agricultural production than the rest of NYS. Five cropping system categories were constructed by grouping similar crops (Figure 2). The Processing Vegetable category grouped fields where winter squash, potatoes, pumpkins, and tomatoes were grown. The Mixed Vegetable category grouped fields where several different vegetable crops were grown in the same field in a single season and sold as fresh market produce (and also tend to be smaller farms than with processing vegetables). The Perennial Fruit category grouped all small fruit (blueberries and brambles), tree fruit orchards (apples, peaches, cherries, etc.), and vineyards. Woody Plant Nurseries included all operations producing field-grown ornamental horticulture crops (oak trees, California privet, boxwood, holly, etc.), and Pastures included the livestock operations with perennial forage crops.

composite image containing plants and a cow
Figure 2. Cropping systems analyzed in Suffolk County.

The initial analysis focused on differences among cropping systems on silt loam soils, although it reinforced the concepts that soil texture and cropping system are dominant factors contributing to the overall soil health on farms (Figure 3).

colored bar graphs
Figure 3. Mean soil organic matter (A), active carbon (B), respiration (C), and aggregate stability (D) across cropping systems on silt loam textured soils.

For silt loams, the soil health indicators of active carbon, respiration, and aggregate stability showed differences across cropping system, whereas soil organic matter (OM) did not. This indicates that some of these more labile OM indicators (more directly related to biological activity in the soil) can better and earlier detect changes in soil health than the total soil OM level which generally changes slowly over time. Pastures had greater active carbon levels than Processing Vegetable systems. Respiration and aggregate stability were slightly more sensitive to cropping system than active carbon. Pastures had higher soil respiration than both Processing Vegetable and Mixed Vegetable systems. Furthermore, Pastures had more than twice the aggregate stability compared to all other systems, which highlights the importance of living roots year-round to build and stabilize soil aggregates (Figure 3).

Overall, different agricultural management practices associated with various cropping systems had a big impact on soil health status. They often reflect important differences in total carbon and nutrient balances and degrees of disturbance from tillage. Pasture and Perennial Fruit maintained the best overall soil health because these systems are largely undisturbed and have perennial vegetation (Figure 3). Pasture systems receive continuous root and shoot inputs year-round and some Perennial Fruit systems may receive woodchip mulch. This permanent cover further protects the soil from losses due to wind and water erosion. The Mixed Vegetable farms typically have diverse rotations, practice cover cropping, and utilize various soil amendments such as compost to supplement fertility and build OM. In contrast, Processing Vegetable systems are more intensively managed, and although they often practice cover cropping, typically don’t receive sufficient organic inputs to replace the OM that is lost annually from tillage and other management activities. Typically, 40-80% of the carbon and nutrients in the aboveground biomass are exported off the farm in the form of crop harvests, which needs be counterbalanced with soil management practices like cover cropping and organic amendment application to maintain and build soil health.

Stay tuned for the complete report that characterizes soil health across Suffolk County, which will examine the effects of soil texture, soil taxonomic unit, and cropping system on the suite of biological, physical, and chemical soil parameters included in the CASH test. Refer to the full Characterization of Soil Health in New York State (https://newyorksoilhealth.org/soil-health-characterization/) report as an example of what will be produced for Suffolk County.

References and further reading:

Amsili, J.P., H.M. van Es, R.R. Schindelbeck, K.S.M. Kurtz, D.W. Wolfe, and G. Barshad. 2020. Characterization of Soil Health in New York State: Technical Report. New York Soil Health Initiative. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY

Magdoff, F.R. and H.M. van Es. 2009. Building Soils for Better Crops: Sustainable Soil Management. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension, College Park, MD. (The fourth edition will be out in 2021).

Moebius-Clune, B.N., D.J. Moebius-Clune, B.K. Gugino, O.J. Idowu, R.R. Schindelbeck, A.J. Ristow, H.M. van Es, J.E. Thies, H.A. Shayler, M.B. McBride, K.S.M Kurtz, D.W. Wolfe, and G.S. Abawi, 2016. Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health – The Cornell Framework. Ed. 3.2. Cornell University, Geneva, NY

Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE). 2007. Managing Cover Crops Profitably. 3rd Ed. Available for download at this link: https://www.sare.org/wp-content/uploads/Managing-Cover-Crops-Profitably.pdf

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Manure injection for corn silage in conservation till, strip till and no-till conditions

Martin L. Battagliaa, Quirine M. Ketteringsa, G. Godwina, Karl J. Czymmeka,b
a Nutrient Management Spear Program, b PRODAIRY, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University

Introduction

Conservation tillage practices and incorporation and injection of manure have increased in New York State over the last 20 years. In the future, it is expected that dairy farmers will need to make significant further progress toward no-till practices to minimize soil erosion losses and maximize soil health and carbon sequestration. Compared to surface application of manure, incorporation and injection can reduce ammonia volatilization, odor emissions and nutrient losses, particularly phosphorus (P), in water runoff. However, shallow incorporation of manure with an aerator tool or similar full-width tillage implements, while effective at retaining nitrogen (N) and P (Place et al., 2010), does not meet no-till practice standards as defined by USDA-NRCS. Injection of manure is only compatible with no-till and reduced tillage if low disturbance equipment is used. One central question is: are conservation tillage practices, including no-till planting and zone building, compatible with systems where manure is spring-injected in New York.

Field studies

manure injection systemTwo types of studies were conducted on dairy farm fields in western New York. The first study (2012-2013) evaluated the impact of zone tillage depth (0, 7 and 14 inches). This study was completed on one field in 2012 and two fields in 2013. An aerator was used for seedbed preparation. The second study (2014-2016) evaluated three intensities of conservation tillage, including no-tillage, reduced tillage (aerator without zone tillage), and intensified reduced tillage (aerator plus zone tillage at 7 inches depth). This study was conducted on two fields each year.

All fields had a zone tillage and a winter cereal cover cropping history of more than 10 years. Fields were in a dairy rotation of typically 3-4 yr corn alternated with 3-4 yr alfalfa/grass. Liquid manure was used as the primary source of soil fertility. It was injected (6-inch depth; 30 inches between injection bands) in March at a rate of about 13,000 gallons per acre (2012 through 2015) or 8,000 gallons per acre (2016) using a manure injector with chisel and sweep tools (Figure 1). Average total N content in manure ranged from 20 to 25 pounds of N per 1000 gallons. Manure P content ranged from 5 to 11 pounds of P2O5 per 1,000 gallons, while solids content varies from about 5 to 10%.

In both types of studies, zone tillage was performed in late April using an 8 row (30 inch) zone builder with subsoiler shanks and a 20-foot wide aeration tool set at a 15 degree angle pulled in tandem. Corn was planted at 15-inch corn row spacing at a rate between 34,000 and 35,000 seeds per acre between April 30 and May 13. No sidedressing of N was done given practical limitation of 15-inch corn row spacing. Each year, we measured early growth parameters (plant biomass, leaves per plant, stand density, and plant height at V5), and took soil samples at V5 that were analyzed for the pre-sidedress nitrate test (PSNT). At harvest we took corn stalks and analyzed them for the corn stalk nitrate test (CSNT), determined silage yield and dry matter content as well as forage quality parameters including crude protein (CP), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF).

Results

Average plant density at V5 ranged between ~31,600 and 32,700 plants per acre (between 90 and 96% of the seeding rate). Reduced tillage and even omitting tillage altogether did not impact early corn silage stand density (Table 1).

In both types of studies, and for all fields, the PSNT-N exceeded 21 ppm NO3-N, indicating sufficient N from manure and soil organic matter mineralization. The PSNT results also indicate no impact of tillage practice or depth on mid-season N availability (Table 1).

Silage yield averaged about 25 tons per acre (at 35% dry matter) in the tillage depth study, with 7.8% CP. In the tillage intensity studies, yields averaged about 23 tons per acre with 7.3% CP. The results should not be compared between the two types of studies as trials were conducted on different fields and across different growing seasons. Tillage depth or intensity did not impact yield or CP content in either of the studies (Table 1).

The CSNT-N ranged between 3,235 and 3,589 ppm NO3-N in the zone tillage depth, and between 2,315 and 2,753 ppm NO3-N in the tillage intensity study, above the 2,000 ppm NO3-N optimum range. Zone tillage depth and different tillage intensities did not impact CSNT-N and both PSNT-N and CSNT-N show N was not limiting plant growth (Table 1).

Plant density and pre-sidedress nitrate test (PSNT) at V5, and corn stalk nitrate test (CSNT), silage yield [35% dry matter (DM)], crude protein (CP), and acid and neutral detergent fiber (ADF, NDF).

Conclusions and Implications

All types of tillage systems and depths performed equally well in terms of plant growth, N availability, corn silage yield and quality suggesting that reduced tillage and no-till can both be viable options to more intensive tillage for this farm. Results might be different for fields with limited history of zone building and other efforts to improve soil health. We conclude that at this farm that has made significant efforts to adopt soil health practices, manure injection followed by no-till planting or zone building can sustain yields and conserve N. No-till planting has the additional benefit that it reduces soil disturbance, risk of P runoff, as well as tillage-associated fuel, equipment, and labor costs.

Additional Resources

Full Citation

This article is summarized from our peer-reviewed publication: Battaglia, M.L., Ketterings, Q.M., Godwin, G., Czymmek, K.J. 2021. Conservation tillage is compatible with manure injection in corn silage system. Agronomy Journal. https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.20604 (in press).

Acknowledgements

Cornell, NMSP, and Pro-Dairy logosIn memory of Willard DeGolyer, whose dedication to on-farm research inspired us all. This study was funded by the New York Farm Viability Institute (NYFVI), a USDA Conservation Innovation Grant (69-3A75-17-26), supplemented by federal formula funds. We thank the owners and the farm crew for their collaboratively work and dedication to the success of this research over the 5 years where the field studies were conducted. For questions about these results, contact Quirine M. Ketterings at 607-255-3061 or qmk2@cornell.edu, and/or visit the Cornell Nutrient Management Spear Program website at: http://nmsp.cals.cornell.edu/.

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Soil Health in New York State: Establishing Aspirational Goals and Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration Opportunities

Joseph Amsili, Harold van Es, Robert Schindelbeck, Kirsten Kurtz, and David Wolfe
Soil and Crop Sciences and Horticulture Sections, Cornell University

The soil is a foundational resource for life on earth and its health is critical to the sustainability of agriculture and food systems. Healthy soils can lead to increased profitability and resilience to extreme weather for farmers, while also contributing to many off-farm benefits, including improved water quality and climate change mitigation. Defining realistic soil health targets and goals for farmers, professionals, and policymakers is a critical step to making progress towards New York State’s water quality and climate mitigation goals.

In order to establish aspirational soil health goals and assess soil organic carbon sequestration potential (for carbon farming programs), we summarized results from 542 soil samples from across New York State with both cropping system and soil texture information (Figure 1). Each composite soil sample went through the Standard Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (CASH) package at the Cornell Soil Health Laboratory.

Figure 1. Cropping system and soil texture groups used to establish aspirational soil health goals.

These reports include a first attempt at developing aspirational soil health goals for NYS by soil texture and cropping system. It is based on the 75th percentile of the distribution for each biological and physical soil health indicator in each cropping system and texture grouping (Figure 2). We’ve known that soil texture determines the amount of organic matter a soil can hold and needs to be considered when defining soil health goals. But our results also indicate that cropping systems should be considered when defining soil health goals. For example, it’s not realistic or useful to hold a 1,000-acre annual grain operation to the same standards as a five-acre organic vegetable farm. These aspirational soil health goals provide realistic targets for NYS farmers within the context of their own production environment.

Figure 2. Aspirational soil health goals for soil organic matter, active carbon, soil protein, soil respiration, and aggregate stability for different cropping systems on loam textured soils. The full table of aspirational soil health goals by soil texture and cropping system are available in the reports below.

Soil health practices, including reduced tillage, cover crops, organic amendments, and perennial crops, have the potential to build and maintain soil organic carbon levels, which can help remove some atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). An important consideration is that soils have a limited capacity to store soil organic carbon, mostly based on texture and mineralogy. As a soil approaches its saturation point, carbon inputs in the form of plant residues or organic amendments have decreased efficiency at further increasing soil organic carbon. Once this is saturated, soil organic carbon can only build up in more labile fractions that are less protected, more readily decomposed and returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, i.e., the carbon gains in that case are not permanent.

Our results show that most fields under Annual Grain and Processing Vegetable cropping systems have less soil organic carbon than their capacities based on texture class in a grassland system (Figure 3). Therefore, these cropping systems have the greatest potential to stabilize additional soil organic carbon. Conversely, many fields in Pasture and Mixed Vegetable systems are closer to their saturation levels and therefore have less potential to sequester more carbon. Dairy Crop fields are intermediate. Annual Grain and Processing Vegetable systems can build soil organic carbon by incorporating the types of management practices that make Dairy Crop, Mixed Vegetable, and Pasture soils healthier. This includes applications of composts and manure, integration of livestock, better rotations, cover cropping and reduced tillage.

Figure 3. Soil organic carbon as a fraction of the saturation potential of the silt and clay fraction across different cropping systems (based on grassland systems). Carbon sequestration potential is greater at lower saturation levels.

The results of these reports will enable New York State policy makers, agricultural professionals, and farmers to set goals for improved soil health and carbon farming within the context of their soil type and cropping system. Additionally, relative carbon saturation metrics can be used to optimize carbon allocations for soil sequestration and thereby also improve soil health.

Figure 3. The Characterization of Soil Health in New York State Summary (left) and Technical Report (right) are now available.

For more information, please visit our website: newyorksoilhealth.org

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Soil Health in New York State: Effects of Soil Texture and Cropping System

Joseph Amsili, Harold van Es, Robert Schindelbeck, Kirsten Kurtz, David Wolfe, and Galia Barshad
Soil and Crop Sciences and Horticulture Sections, Cornell University

Soil health concepts, practices, and testing have generated a growing awareness of the soil’s central role and highlights that sustainable soil management requires an understanding of biological, physical, and chemical processes and their interrelationships. Furthermore, it is recognized that human management can significantly degrade or improve the quality of the soil.

New York State (NYS), through Cornell University, has been a global leader in the development of soil health programs, including the development of testing methodologies. NYS land managers are becoming increasingly excited about improving the health of their soils. As progress is made in characterizing the health of soils nationwide, researchers will be able to develop regionally specific interpretive metrics that are shaped by the interplay of soil management with soil types and climate.

As part of that effort, we have summarized results from 1,456 soil samples from across New York State from a variety of soil types and cropping systems (Figure 1). Each composite soil sample went through the Standard Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (CASH) package at the Cornell Soil Health Laboratory.

Figure 1. Distribution of soil health samples by county across New York State.

The report demonstrated the important effects of soil texture and cropping system on soil health parameters (Figure 2). For many biological soil health indicators, soils with higher amounts of silt and clay showed higher values, which needs to be accounted for when interpreting test results. Overall, human management through cropping system had a big impact on soil health status, and cropping system differences often reflected the cycling and flows of carbon and nutrients. Pasture systems maintained the best overall soil health because these fields are seldom disturbed by tillage and receive year-round root and shoot inputs. Mixed Vegetable systems typically involve certified organic practices with diverse rotations, cover cropping, and significant quantities of organic nutrient amendments such as compost. Dairy Crop systems can maintain soil health due to cycling of carbon and nutrients through manure inputs and rotations with perennial legume and grass sods. In contrast, Annual Grain and Processing Vegetable systems are intensively managed, and typically don’t apply enough organic amendments to replace the organic matter that is lost each year. Typically, 40-80% of the carbon and nutrients in the aboveground biomass are exported off the farm in the form of crop harvests, which is generally not counterbalanced with regenerative soil management practices like cover cropping and organic amendment application. The results of this study (available in the Reports below) will enable New York State policy makers, agricultural professionals, and farmers to interpret soil health data within the context of soil type and cropping system (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Mean soil organic matter across soil texture groups (left, A). And mean soil organic matter across cropping systems on loam textured soils (right, B).
Figure 3. The Characterization of Soil Health in New York State Summary (left) and Technical Report (right) are now available.

For more information, please visit our website: newyorksoilhealth.org

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What’s Cropping Up? Volume 30 No. 2 – March/April 2020 Now Available!

New York State Soil Health Characterization | Part I: Soil Health and Texture

Joseph Amsili, Harold van Es, Bob Schindelbeck, and Kirsten Kurtz
Soil and Crop Sciences Section, Cornell University

Take-aways:

    • Soil biological indicators (organic matter, active carbon and respiration) were higher in finer textured soils than coarser textured soils, but organic matter quality was higher in coarser textured soils.
    • Soil texture exerted a strong control on a soil’s available water capacity.
    • Organic matter improvements are more likely to increase available water capacity in coarse textured soils compared to fine textured categories.

As progress is made in characterizing the biological and physical health of soils nationwide, soil health labs will be able to develop regionally specific scoring functions that correspond to inherent differences in soil properties and processes, which are shaped by the complex interplay of local climate, geology, biology, and time. The Cornell Soil Health Program has recognized this need and is developing scoring functions by region, soil type, and cropping system. Naturally, we have begun these efforts by focusing on New York State soils. In this first preview of the New York State Soil Health Characterization Report, we focus on the effects of soil texture on biological and physical soil health parameters. Stay tuned for the full technical report, titled “New York State Soil Health Characterization Report”, which will be published soon.

Methods
The Cornell Soil Health Laboratory analyzed 1,456 samples from across New York State between 2014-2018. Soil samples were analyzed for the standard Comprehensive Analysis of Soil Health (CASH) package, which included two physical indicators – wet aggregate stability (AgStab), and available water capacity (AWC); four biological indicators – soil organic matter (SOM), active carbon (ActC), autoclavable citrate extractable protein (Protein), and respiration (Resp); and seven chemical measurements. Results were summarized by four textural groups: coarse, loam, silt loam, and fine (Figure 1). Additionally, NY SH results were compared across five cropping systems which included annual grain, dairy system, process vegetables, mixed vegetables, and pasture (Part II will include a summary of the effects of cropping systems on soil health).

Soil texture chart
Figure 1. Soil health indicators were characterized by coarse (sand, loamy sand, sandy loam), loam (sandy clay loam, loam), silt loam (silt loam, silt), and fine (sandy clay, clay loam, silty clay loam, silty clay, clay) texture groups.

Results and Discussion
Soil texture is a dominant inherent soil property that exerts strong controls on a soil’s ability to function. Specifically, soil texture influences the amount of storable carbon and nutrients, a soil’s water holding capacity, erodibility, and drainage, and the habitat that soil provides to organisms. In order to evaluate the impacts of human land management (tillage, crop rotation, organic amendments) on the soil, it’s critical to understand the effects of the underlying inherent soil properties, like soil texture, on these soil health parameters.

Effects of soil texture on biological soil health indicators

Soil texture influences the quantity and quality of organic matter a soil can hold. Soils with higher concentrations of silt and clay (fine-textured) can store more organic matter than sandy (coarse-textured) soils due to the large amount of surface area available to bind with organic molecules. In the NYS database, SOM, ActC, and Resp were highest in fine textured soils, followed by silt loam, loam, and coarse textured soils. Fine textured soils in fact had 79%, 59%, and 56% higher SOM, Resp, and Act C than coarse textured soils, respectively (Table 1). Protein did not follow the pattern of an increasing concentration in finer texture groups. This is likely because it is more difficult to extract proteins from soils with high amounts of clay. Additionally, two ratios, Protein/SOM and ActC/SOM, exhibited lower values in finer textured soils (data not shown), which also suggests a lower ability to extract protein and active carbon in fine textured soils despite high OM levels. Alternatively, it suggests higher proportions of higher-quality organic carbon and nitrogen relative to the stable organic matter, i.e., relatively more “fresh” organic matter than stable mineral-bound organic matter in coarse textured soils.

Biological soil health indicators table

Effects of soil texture on physical soil health indicators

Soil texture exerts a dominant control on a soil’s available water capacity, which is the amount of water that a soil can hold and make available to plants. Coarse textured soils store the least amount of water because large pores between sand particles are unable to hold on to water against gravity. Specifically, as sand content increases, AWC goes down (r = -0.70). In contrast, clayey soils can store the most water, but some of that is tightly held in micropores and plants can’t access it. Therefore, soils with intermediate textures, like silt loams and to a slightly lesser extent loams, are known to store the most plant available water. We indeed found that silt content was positively correlated with AWC (r = 0.72), and silt loams and silty clay loam soils had the highest AWC. Silt loam soils had 273%, 139%, 47%, 28%, higher AWC than sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, and loam soil textures (Figure 2).

The strong textural control on AWC has implications for trying to improve a soil’s AWC with sustainable soil management strategies. The claim that, “one percent of organic matter in the top six inches of soil would hold approximately 27,000 gallons of water per acre” is often used to promote soil organic matter management. While this number is likely an over exaggeration of reality as evidenced by a recent study by Libohova, et al, 2018, who found that this number was closer to 2,850 gallons of available water stored per acre, it is true that increasing SOM is an important strategy to increase AWC. Furthermore, our research and other’s research show that SOM was more strongly related to AWC in coarse textured soils (r = 0.48) compared to loam (r = 0.14) or silt loam (r = 0.12) textured soils. This finding demonstrates that improved organic matter management can lead to increases in AWC in coarse textured soils to a much greater extent than for silt loams or finer soil textures.

Available water capacity chart
Figure 2. Bar chart of mean AWC for different soil texture classes. Error bars represent 1 SD of the mean. Unlike the other soil health indicators in the Cornell Soil Health Test, AWC was highly related to soil texture to the degree that more texture classes were required to understand the effect of soil texture on AWC.

Conclusions
Soil texture is a critical inherent soil property that exerts strong control on a soil’s ability to function, including its potential to store organic matter and retain plant available water. For biological indicators, SOM, ActC, and Resp values were higher in finer texture groups. Furthermore, AWC, an important physical indicator, was strongly controlled by texture. Our data suggest that coarse textured soils with low inherent AWC respond to increases in SOM to a much larger degree than silt loam soils. This NYS soil health database analysis demonstrates that soil texture is an essential variable to include in developing soil health targets at the policy or conservation planner level. Stay tuned for the full technical report titled, “New York State Soil Health Characterization Report” and for part II in the next WCU issue on the effects of cropping system on soil health indicators.

Acknowledgements
We acknowledge support from the New York State Environmental Protection Fund (administered through the Department of New York Agriculture and Markets).

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